Biomolecules And Key Biochemical Principles 2 Sample

Introduction : Biomolecules And Key Biochemical Principles 2

In order to provide the essential support to the living organisms to work properly molecules play a crucial role. Additionally, molecules are initially created from the monomers, furthermore, there are four main types of molecules such as proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and fats. Overall, living organisms use macromolecules in various ways such as storage for genetic information as well as to provide the required energy to the body.

Part A 

“The structure and functions of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins and their significance in living organisms”

Carbohydrates

Detailed discussion on Carbohydrates 

Carbohydrates are the organic compounds initially composed from the oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. Carbohydrates are mainly classified into three different groups including, disaccharides, polysaccharides and monosaccharides. Furthermore, the primary function of the carbohydrates is to provide the required energy to the body (Payling et al., 2020). In addition, the primary function of the glucose is to provide energy to the cells. On the other hand, a monosaccharide is also an initial source of energy for the cells. Additionally, carbohydrates are essential for the development process of cell walls within plants as well as it also crucial for the structural role in organisms (Tharanathan, 2002). 

Requirements of Carbohydrates in living system 

Furthermore, it also plays a crucial role in the development of exoskeletons of arthropods as well. Additionally, within cells, carbohydrates can be found in different forms. In addition, through cellular respiration monosaccharides including glucose serve the energy production process (Navarro, Abelilla and Stein, 2019). Furthermore, in fungi and animals polysaccharides such as glycogen stores glucose. On the other hand, as a part of the cell wall cellulose provides essential structural support (Chizhov, 2021). Overall, carbohydrate is crucial for providing energy to the body through the cellular process as well as for developing the physical structures of the organisms.

The physiopathology of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Syndrome (NAFLS)

Non-alcoholic fatty Liver Syndrome (NAFLS) develops among people with no alcohol consumption as well as among people with little alcohol consumption. On the other hand, the genetic factors also play a crucial role in the overall progress and development of the NAFLD.

Lipid

Detailed discussion on Lipid

Lipids mainly include a diverse range of hydrophobic molecules including oils, phospholipids, fats, and steroids. In addition, the initial composed of lipids includes hydrogen atoms and carbon (Ahmed, Shah and Ahmed, 2022). Furthermore, lipids also provide essential functions to the living organisms as well as it also work as the energy reserves Introduction is not good at all, not refrenced, 2 they significance of research need to change. There is no problem question, review of literature is not clear at all, methodology s again the same , conclusion also has to right. Further again u r not following oscala. Neither u used any primary sources like books (Cockcroft, 2021). In addition, lipids also provide a concentrated support while working as a source of energy. Furthermore, to the main body temperature lipids develop a structural component of the cell membrane to maintain the temperature of the body. In addition, the lipid bilayer of the phospholipids develops the structure of the cell membranes (Tracey et al., 2018).

The use of fats in living systems

ats play pivotal places in living systems, serving as energy substrates and furnishing sequestration. In the environment of ketosis, fats are employed as an indispensable energy source when glucose vacuity is limited. During this metabolic state, the body breaks down fats into ketone bodies, which can be used by colorful apkins, including the brain, as a source of energy. also, subcutaneous fat serves as an important separating subcaste beneath the skin, helping to maintain body temperature and cover internal organs. 

Differentiate between a saturated and unsaturated fatty acid

 Impregnated and unsaturated adipose acids differ in their chemical structure and parcels. A impregnated adipose acid contains only single bonds between carbon tittles, and each carbon snippet is clicked to the maximum number of hydrogen tittles. This results in a straight molecular structure, allowing the motes to pack nearly together, making them solid at room temperature. exemplifications of impregnated adipose acids include palmitic acid and stearic acid. On the other hand, unsaturated adipose acids contain one or further double bonds between carbon tittles, leading to a fraudulent or kinked molecular structure. This prevents the motes from packing nearly together, performing in a liquid state at room temperature. Unsaturated adipose acids can be farther distributed as monounsaturated (containing one double bond) or polyunsaturated (containing two or further double bonds). exemplifications of unsaturated adipose acids include oleic acid (monounsaturated) and linoleic acid (polyunsaturated) 

Differentiate between essential and non-essential Amino Acids

There are eleven unnecessary amino acids alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine. On the other hand, within the cells, proteins have various roles. Additionally, within the cells proteins serve as the integral membrane to facilitate and transport within the different cell membranes (Ferruz et al., 2022). Furthermore, as its enzyme form protein also follows a drive metabolic partway within the cells. On the other hand, structural proteins are crucial to provide essential support to the organs and tissues (Helmick et al., 2023). Overall, proteins are a part of every biological process as well as for the functions, structure and regulation process of the organs and tissues.

 Proteins as growth and repair

On the other hand, in the cells, lipids are the essential integral components of the cell membranes. Furthermore, lipids are also specifically stored within the specialized organelles known as the adipocytes to reserve the energy (Messias et al., 2018). Additionally, lipids also provide essential energy to the cellular structure as well as it also significantly contribute to the overall functionality of the cellular. With the peptide bonds co-related to each other, proteins serve as the large and complex molecules composed within the amino acids (Watson et al., 2023). Furthermore, within the living organisms protein also provides support to various functions as hormones, as enzymes and as antibodies as well (Kessel and Ben-Tal, 2018). On the other hand, proteins are also crucial for the development of structural components. 

The pathophysiology of gout involves the deposit of monosodium urate chargers in the joints and girding apkins, leading to inflammation and towel damage. This condition is caused by an elevated position of uric acid in the blood, a condition known as hyperuricemia. Uric acid is a waste product formed from the breakdown of purines, which are set up in numerous foods and are also produced by the body. 

Part B (a)

Describe the stages of Meiosis

Genetic Diversity 

Meiosis produces genetic diversity by means of independent assortment and crossing over processes (Nature education, 2014). The process of crossing over, which takes place in Prophase I, permits homologous chromosomes to exchange genetic material. New gene combinations are produced by this recombination that are not present in either parent. To further enhance genetic variability, independent assortment, which occurs during Metaphase I and Anaphase I, guarantees that each gamete receives a random mix of paternal and maternal chromosomes.

Describe in detail the chromosomal movements

Creation of Gametes 

In sexually reproducing organisms, meiosis is the process that produces gametes. In males, it causes sperm to form, and in females, it causes eggs (ova) to form (National Human Genome Research Institute, 2020). The development of gametes requires specialization, which is necessary for the survival of species.

Evolutionary Significance 

Meiosis produces genetic variation, which is a major force behind evolution (Gottlieb, Gulani and Tegay, 2020). It gives natural selection a mechanism to work with, since certain gene combinations might confer advantages in particular environments. The starting point for evolutionary modifications is this variation.

Error Correction and Genome Stability 

Cells have the ability to identify and fix specific kinds of genetic damage during meiosis. By preserving genome stability across generations, this process lowers the possibility of deleterious mutations (Chatterjee and Walker, 2017).

Variation of phenotypes in the offspring

Sexual reduplication, which results in a variation of phenotypes in the seed, is a better survival strategy for species compared to asexual reduplication, which produces duplicates. This is due to several reasons. originally, inheritable variation performing from sexual reduplication allows for a lesser capability to acclimatize to changing surroundings and repel conditions. Secondly, sexual reduplication promotes the elimination of dangerous mutations through recombination and independent multifariousness during meiosis. Thirdly, the variation in phenotypes performing from sexual reduplication enhances the overall inheritable diversity of the population, reducing the threat of extermination due to environmental changes or complaint outbreaks. also, sexual reduplication facilitates the elaboration of new traits and characteristics that can enhance the species ’ survival in response to environmental pressures. 

Part B (b) 

The symptoms and causes of Sickle Cell Anaemia

Nature of the Mutation 

The hemoglobin gene's DNA sequence has a single base changed, which causes sickle cell anemia (Nature, 2022). It is specifically a point mutation in the beta-globin gene (HBB) where thymine replaces the nucleotide adenine in the sixth codon. As a result, valine replaces glutamic acid in the hemoglobin protein (HbA).

Hemoglobin and Red Blood Cell Changes

In this condition, sickle hemoglobin (HbS) replaces normal hemoglobin (HbA). Red blood cells with hemoglobin S (HbS) tend to clump together when oxygen levels drop, making them rigid and forming a sickle or crescent shape (Ehsan and Smita Maruvada, 2018). These deformed cells can obstruct blood flow in tiny vessels because they are less flexible.

The pattern of inheritance for sickle cell anemia is autosomal recessive. This indicates that for an individual to have the illness, they need to inherit two copies of the mutated gene, one from each parent (Sickle Cell Society, 2019). Carriers people who have one copy of the mutation typically do not exhibit any symptoms, but they can still pass the gene on to their progeny.

Symptoms and Complications 

Severe pain, anemia, edema in the hands and feet, recurrent infections, and stunted growth are some of the signs and symptoms of sickle cell anemia (Cleveland Clinic medical professional , 2020). Strokes and organ damage can result from a blockage in blood flow. The degree of symptoms can differ greatly from person to person.

Geographical Prevalence and Evolutionary Aspect 

Individuals descended from malaria-endemic regions, including sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and portions of India, are more likely to carry the sickle cell trait. Due to a selective advantage in an environment where malaria is endemic, carriers of one sickle cell gene (sickle cell trait) have some resistance to malaria, which explains why this gene is more common in these areas (Cleveland Clinic medical professional , 2020).

The structure of DNA and RNA, identifying their similarities and differences

DNA( deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA( ribonucleic acid) are nucleic acids that play pivotal places in the storehouse and expression of inheritable information. Both DNA and RNA are composed of nucleotides, which correspond of a sugar patch, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The primary differences between DNA and RNA lie in their structures and functions. 

“Explain the inheritance pattern of the condition, using completed genetic diagrams”

Figure 1: The inheritance pattern of an autosomal recessive disorder with two carrier parents reflects a probability of expression among offspring” 

(Source: Lumenlearning, 2019)

Parental Genotypes: The sickle cell trait is carried by both parents. Thus, they have one normal allele (A) and one mutated allele (S), or genotype 'AS'.

Potential Gametes: Because of the segregation of alleles during meiosis, each parent is able to produce two different kinds of gametes. The 'A' allele will be present in one gamete while the 'S' allele will be present in the other.

Fertilization and Offspring Genotypes: Three genotypes may result from the fertilization of these gametes when they combine:

"A" (Normal): This is the result of the combination of a 'A' allele from one parent and a 'A' allele from the other parent. The person is not a carrier and does not have sickle cell anemia.

'AS' (Carrier): This is the result of the combination of a 'A' allele from one parent and a 'S' allele from the other, or the opposite. Although the person does not have sickle cell anemia, they are carriers just like their parents.

"SS" (Affected): This is the result of the combination of a "S" allele from one parent and a "S" allele from the other parent. The person will have anemia from sickle cells.

Genetic Diagram

In this diagram, each cell represents a possible genotype of the offspring, with a 25% chance for each

Inheritance Probability: This cross has the following probabilities:

One in four offspring have a 25% chance of being unaffected and not being a carrier (AA).

50% likelihood (2 in 4) that a child will carry the AS gene.

One in four children have a 25% chance of having sickle cell anemia (SS).

“The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology (Crick, 1957)” 

The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology, proposed by Francis Crick in 1957, describes the inflow of inheritable information within a natural system. It outlines the processes of recap, restatement, and protein conflation. Recap is the first step in the central dogma, where a member of DNA is used as a template to produce a reciprocal RNA patch. This process occurs in the cell nexus and is carried out by an enzyme called RNA polymerase. The performing RNA patch, known as runner RNA( mRNA), carries the inheritable information from the DNA to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. restatement is the coming phase, during which the mRNA is decrypted to synthesize a specific protein. Ribosomes, along with transfer RNA( tRNA) motes carrying amino acids, read the mRNA sequence and assemble the corresponding amino acids into a polypeptide chain. This process takes place in the cytoplasm and requires the participation of colorful protein factors. Protein conflation is the final stage of the central dogma, where the recently synthesized polypeptide chain undergoes folding andpost-translational variations to form a functional protein. These proteins play pivotal places in colorful cellular functions and natural processes. 

“The Mendel’s law of independent assortment”

Mendel's law of independent multifariousness countries that the heritage of one particularity is independent of the heritage of another. This principle is grounded on the geste of chromosomes during meiosis, where homologous chromosomes separate singly of each other. This means that the alleles for different genes are passed on to seed singly, leading to a variety of inheritable combinations. A Punnett forecourt is a illustration used to prognosticate the possible genotypes and phenotypes of seed in a inheritable cross. It's a simple grid used to calculate the probability of different genotypes and phenotypes performing from a particular inheritable cross. 

Part C

“The relationship between the structure of enzymes and their function

Functions of enzyme”

Enzymes play an essential role in cellular procedures by functioning as a biological catalyst that helps to accelerate chemical reactions permitting them to appear at psychological rates. The enzyme functions complexities are intricately connected to their structural function, especially active site configuration. Enzymes are a protein that is composed of a long chain of amino acids folded into a particular three-dimensional structure (Lewis and Stone, 2020). The primary secondary tertiary and quaternary structures of amino acids are collectively demonstrated in the overall enzyme architecture.

Figure 2: Enzymes structure

(Source: Lewis and Stone, 2020)

Amino acid's specific sequence gives height to a specific confirmation and it is this confirmation that supplies catalytic activity toward enzyme. 

Several factors that can influence the rate of enzyme reaction

Figure 3: Relationship between enzymes and their function

(Source: Lu et al., 2022)

At enzyme functions the heart lies an active site concept that demonstrates as an area on the enzyme surface in that substrate, the molecule win on which the enzyme acts binds. The active sites supply a complementary and specific circumstance for a particular substance permitting the enzyme-substrate formation to develop (Lu et al., 2022). This interaction emphasizes the catalytic substrate conversion into the product.

The enzyme-substrate instruction can be demonstrated by two models as “lock and key model and the induced fit model”. The lock and key model recommended that the active side is an inflexible structure that significantly fits the substrate while the induced fit model recommended that the active site experience conformational change upon binding of the substrate increasing the enzyme's catalytic activity (Copeland, 2023). These models highlight enzymes' excuse for site-specificity in addressing and binding to their substrate. Enzyme-substrate particularity is a fundamental notion of managing enzymatic reactions. Individually enzymes are organized to bind and recognize a precise group or substrate of structurally correlated substrates (Zhang et al. 2021). In the active site, this specificity stems from the unusual amino acid arrangement that completes the chemical properties and shapes the substrate. For instance, the enzyme lactase particularly catalyzes lactose hydrolysis, and amylase tries to starch decomposition into maltose. This specificity confirms that biochemical routes flow with accuracy, reducing side effects and optimizing the cellular processes' performance.

Factors influencing the activity of the enzyme

Numerous factors impact enzyme activity and among them, PH and temperature are the most significant.

PH

The environmental pH significantly affects enzyme activity. The individual enzyme has a specific optimum pH at which it efficiently works. This can change the charge distribution between substrate and enzyme influencing catalytic activity and binding nature (Huang et al., 2019). Excessive PH value can guide towards denaturations reflecting temperature extreme effect. 

Temperature

Enzymes display optimum activity at a certain temperature. With increasing temperature molecules' kinetic energy also increases leading toward additionally frequent collisions between substrate and enzymes. However, high levels of temperature can destroy enzymes' nature, diminishing their structure and leading towards non-functional (Tang et al., 2020). On the other hand, the low-level temperature can minimize molecules' kinetic energy which can slow down the enzyme-substrate interaction. 

Get Extra 10% OFF on your WhatsApp order!

use my discount

Overall the complicated relationship between the structure of an enzyme and its function is essential for acknowledging the biochemical living organisms' machinery. The three-dimensional enzyme configuration, particularly the active side, demonstrates its catalytic nature (Xu, Chu and Yao, 2021). The specificity of enzyme substrate activity maintains biochemical reaction precision contributing to cellular procedure's overall efficiency. Additionally, enzyme activity also demonstrates the influence of PH and temperature that can destroy the delicate balance between optimal enzymatic reactions. Rubalcaba et al., (2020) stated that Addressing this relationship helps to enhance the understanding of basic biological guidelines and their practical application in biotechnology and medicine in that altering enzyme activity is crucial for multiple purposes. 

Part D (a) and (b)

Compare the process of aerobic and anaerobic respiration and outline the key stages of aerobic respiration, explaining how ATP is produced

3 cell processes

Anaerobic respiration

On the other hand, anaerobic respiration is another route in that oxygen is not required. It can be found in the cytoplasm and has less ATP as compared to aerobic respiration (Edwards et al., 2019). 

Oxygen absence

This procedure generates oxygen absence as it starts with glycolysis like aerobic respiration. However, it follows different subsequent steps (Yao et al., 2020). Oxygen absence and electron acceptor alternatives such as nitrate or sulfate can utilize hair which leads the process to multiple byproduct production.

ATP production

This procedure yields limited ATP molecules as compared to aerobic respiration as it has limited oxygen that limits energy extraction procedures' final stages efficiency (Martin, Tielens and Mentel, 2020).

Cycle diagram of TCA cycle w

The tricarboxylic acid( TCA) cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle, is a series of chemical responses that do in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. It's a central metabolic pathway involved in the generation of energy through the oxidation of acetyl- CoA deduced from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The TCA cycle involves a series of eight enzymatic responses that affect in the product of ATP, NADH, and FADH2, which are essential for cellular respiration.

Figure 4: Cycle diagram of TCA cycle 

 (Source: Ayodeji Olalekan Salau and Thomas Kokumo Yesufu, 2020)

Diagram of the electron transport chain (ETC) 

The electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of protein complexes and small motes bedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It plays a pivotal part in generating adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main energy currency, through oxidative phosphorylation. The ETC consists of four main protein complexes (Complex I, II, III, and IV) and two mobile electron carriers (ubiquinone and cytochrome c). Electrons are transferred through these complexes and carriers, leading to the pumping of protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane and eventually driving ATP conflation.

Figure 5: Diagram of the electron transport chain (ETC)

(Source: Choudhary, n.d.)

Net ATP yield calculation of aerobic and anaerobic respiration 

Cellular respiration is the key procedure through which cells can collect energy from nutrients to enhance their activities. This procedure has two forms such as aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration (Pang et al., 2023). Aerobic respiration stems from oxygen present while anaerobic respiration occurs in oxygen absence. Aerobic respiration is a complicated biochemical procedure that stems in oxygen permitting the cell to effectively extract energy from nutrients or organic molecules such as glucose. This procedure incorporates multiple key stages that make a high contribution to adenosine triphosphate production, a cellular energy primary currency. Arabic respiration's 3 fundamental stages are psychiatric acid cycle glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation (Bakshi et al., 2024). The three stages with detailed and highlighting their location within the cell are provided.

Conclusion

Macromolecules, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, are essential for the correct functioning of living organisms. Carbohydrates serve as a primary source of energy and play a pivotal part in furnishing structural support in cells. Lipids are important for energy storehouse, sequestration, and the conformation of cell membranes. Proteins are involved in colorful natural processes similar as enzyme catalysis, vulnerable response, and structural support. Nucleic acids, particularly DNA and RNA, carry inheritable information and are vital for the transmission of inheritable traits from one generation to another. 

References 

• Ahmed, S., Shah, P. and Ahmed, O. (2022). Biochemistry, Lipids. [online] PubMed. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525952/#:~:text=The%20structure%20is%20typically%20made [Accessed 5 Dec. 2023].
• Bakshi, H.A., Mkhael, M., Faruck, H.L., Khan, A.U., Aljabali, A.A.A., Mishra, V., El-Tanani, M., Charbe, N.B. and Tambuwala, M.M. (2024). Cellular signaling in the hypoxic cancer microenvironment: Implications for drug resistance and therapeutic targeting. Cellular Signalling, [online] 113, p.110911. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellsig.2023.110911.
• Cao, L., Wu, J., Qu, X., Sheng, J., Cui, M., Liu, S., Huang, X., Xiang, Y., Li, B., Zhang, X. and Cui, R. (2020). Glycometabolic rearrangements--aerobic glycolysis in pancreatic cancer: causes, characteristics and clinical applications. Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research, 39(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s13046-020-01765-x.
• Chatterjee, N. and Walker, G.C. (2017). Mechanisms of DNA damage, repair, and mutagenesis. Environmental and molecular mutagenesis, 58(5), pp.235–263. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/em.22087.
• Chizhov, A.O. (2021). Complex Carbohydrates and Glycoconjugates: Structure, Functions and Applications. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(22), p.12219. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212219.
• Cianci, M. (2020). INTRODUCTION TO PROTEINS, Introduction to Proteins: Structure, Function, and Motion, 2nd edition. Crystallography Reviews, 27(1), pp.47–50. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/0889311x.2020.1858067.
• Cleveland Clinic medical professional (2020). Sickle Cell Disease. [online] Cleveland Clinic. Available at: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12100-sickle-cell-disease [Accessed 6 Dec. 2023].
• Cockcroft, S. (2021). Mammalian lipids: structure, synthesis and function. Essays in Biochemistry, 65(5), pp.813–845. doi:https://doi.org/10.1042/ebc20200067.
• Copeland, R.A. (2023). Enzymes : a Practical introduction to structure, mechanism, and data analysis. New Delhi, India: Wiley - Vch (Wiley - India.
• Edwards, M.J., Richardson, D.J., Paquete, C.M. and Clarke, T.A. (2019). Role of multiheme cytochromes involved in extracellular anaerobic respiration in bacteria. Protein Science, 29(4), pp.830–842. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/pro.3787.
• Ehsan, M. and Smita Maruvada (2018). Sickle Cell Anemia. [online] Nih.gov. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482164/.
• Ferruz, N., Heinzinger, M., Mehmet Akdel, Goncearenco, A., Naef, L. and Dallago, C. (2022). From sequence to function through structure: deep learning for protein design. bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory). doi:https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.08.31.505981.
• Gottlieb, S.F., Gulani, A. and Tegay, D.H. (2020). Genetics, Meiosis. [online] PubMed. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482462/.
• Helmick, H., Jain, A., Genki Terashi, Liceaga, A.M., Bhunia, A.K., Kihara, D. and Kokini, J.L. (2023). Bioinformatic Approaches for Characterizing Molecular Structure and Function of Food Proteins. Annual review of food science and technology, 14(1), pp.203–224. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-060721-022222.
• Hu, J. (2022). Cell Respiration—Energy Production of Cells. [online] www.atlantis-press.com. doi:https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.220109.016.
• Huang, Y., Zhao, Y., Wang, J., Zhang, M., Jia, W. and Qin, X. (2019). LDPE microplastic films alter microbial community composition and enzymatic activities in soil. Environmental Pollution, 254, p.112983. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.112983.
• Jones, A.R., Moraes, I. and Quaglia, M. (2023). Editorial: Structure-function metrology of proteins. Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences, 10. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2023.1125791.
• Kerr, E. (2019). An Investigation of Glycolysis, Metabolic Acidosis, and Lactate’s Role in Cellular Respiration. Honors College Theses. [online] Available at: https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/honorstheses/51/ [Accessed 5 Dec. 2023].
• Kessel, A. and Ben-Tal, N. (2018). Introduction to Proteins. Chapman and Hall/CRC. doi:https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315113876.
• Kondo, H., Iizuka, H., Masumoto, G., Yuichi Kabaya, Yusuke Kanematsu and Takano, Y. (2023). Prediction of Protein Function from Tertiary Structure of the Active Site in Heme Proteins by Convolutional Neural Network. Biomolecules, 13(1), pp.137–137. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13010137.
• Lewis, T. and Stone, W.L. (2020). Biochemistry, Proteins Enzymes. [online] PubMed. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554481/#:~:text=Enzymes%20are%20proteins%20comprised%20of.
• Lu, S., Na, K., Wei, J., Zhang, L. and Guo, X. (2022). Alginate oligosaccharides: The structure-function relationships and the directional preparation for application. Carbohydrate Polymers, 284, p.119225. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119225.
• Lumenlearning (2019). Patterns of Inheritance | Anatomy and Physiology II. [online] Lumenlearning.com. Available at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/patterns-of-inheritance/ [Accessed 5 Dec. 2023].
• Martin, W.F., Tielens, A.G.M. and Mentel, M. (2020). Mitochondria and Anaerobic Energy Metabolism in Eukaryotes: Biochemistry and Evolution. [online] Google Books. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. Available at: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=VJc9EAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=anaerobic+respiration+is+another+route+in+that+oxygen+is+not+required [Accessed 5 Dec. 2023].
• Messias, M.C.F., Mecatti, G.C., Priolli, D.G. and de Oliveira Carvalho, P. (2018). Plasmalogen lipids: functional mechanism and their involvement in gastrointestinal cancer. Lipids in Health and Disease, 17(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12944-018-0685-9.
• National Human Genome Research Institute (2020). Meiosis. [online] Genome.gov. Available at: https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Meiosis.
• Nature (2022). Genetic Mutation | Learn Science at Scitable. [online] www.nature.com. Available at: http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetic-mutation-441 [Accessed 5 Dec. 2023].
• Nature education (2014). Replication and Distribution of DNA during Meiosis | Learn Science at Scitable. [online] www.nature.com. Available at: https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/replication-and-distribution-of-dna-during-meiosis-6524853/#:~:text=Meiosis%20is%20important%20because%20it [Accessed 5 Dec. 2023].
• Navarro, D.M.D.L., Abelilla, J.J. and Stein, H.H. (2019). Structures and characteristics of carbohydrates in diets fed to pigs: a review. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, [online] 10(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-019-0345-6.
• Pang, X., Nawrocki, W.J., Cardol, P., Zheng, M., Jiang, J., Fang, Y., Yang, W., Croce, R. and Tian, L. (2023). Weak acids produced during anaerobic respiration suppress both photosynthesis and aerobic respiration. Nature Communications, [online] 14(1), p.4207. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-39898-0.
• Payling, L., Fraser, K., Loveday, S.M., Sims, I., Roy, N. and McNabb, W. (2020). The effects of carbohydrate structure on the composition and functionality of the human gut microbiota. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 97, pp.233–248. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.01.009.
• Rubalcaba, J.G., Verberk, W.C.E.P., Hendriks, A.J., Saris, B. and Woods, H.A. (2020). Oxygen limitation may affect the temperature and size dependence of metabolism in aquatic ectotherms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, p.202003292. doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2003292117.
• Schurr, A. and Passarella, S. (2022). Aerobic Glycolysis: A DeOxymoron of (Neuro)Biology. Metabolites, 12(1), p.72. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo12010072.
• Sickle Cell Society (2019). Inheritance of Sickle Cell Anaemia. [online] Sickle Cell Society. Available at: https://www.sicklecellsociety.org/resource/inheritance-sickle-cell-anaemia/.
• Tang, C.-S., Yin, L., Jiang, N., Zhu, C., Zeng, H., Li, H. and Shi, B. (2020). Factors affecting the performance of microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) treated soil: a review. Environmental Earth Sciences, 79(5). doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-8840-9.
• Tharanathan, R.N. (2002). Food-Derived Carbohydrates — Structural Complexity and Functional Diversity. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 22(1), pp.65–84. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/07388550290789469.
• The Albert Team (2016). What is the Purpose of Meiosis? | Albert.io. [online] Albert Blog. Available at: https://www.albert.io/blog/what-is-the-purpose-of-meiosis/ [Accessed 5 Dec. 2023].
• Theriault, J., Shaffer, C., Dienel, G.A., Sander, C.Y., Hooker, J.M., Dickerson, B.C., Lisa Feldman Barrett and Quigley, K.S. (2023). A functional account of stimulation-based aerobic glycolysis and its role in interpreting BOLD signal intensity increases in neuroimaging experiments. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 153, pp.105373–105373. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105373.
• Tracey, T.J., Steyn, F.J., Wolvetang, E.J. and Ngo, S.T. (2018). Neuronal Lipid Metabolism: Multiple Pathways Driving Functional Outcomes in Health and Disease. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience, 11. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00010.
• Wainaina, S., Awasthi, M.K., Sarsaiya, S., Chen, H., Singh, E., Kumar, A., Ravindran, B., Awasthi, S.K., Liu, T., Duan, Y., Kumar, S., Zhang, Z. and Taherzadeh, M.J. (2020). Resource recovery and circular economy from organic solid waste using aerobic and anaerobic digestion technologies. Bioresource Technology, [online] 301, p.122778. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.122778.
• Watson, J.L., Juergens, D., Bennett, N.R., Trippe, B.L., Yim, J., Eisenach, H.E., Ahern, W., Borst, A.J., Ragotte, R.J., Milles, L.F., Wicky, B.I.M., Hanikel, N., Pellock, S.J., Courbet, A., Sheffler, W., Wang, J., Venkatesh, P., Sappington, I., Torres, S.V. and Lauko, A. (2023). De novo design of protein structure and function with RFdiffusion. Nature, [online] pp.1–3. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06415-8.
• Wichern, F., Islam, Md.R., Hemkemeyer, M., Watson, C. and Joergensen, R.G. (2020). Organic Amendments Alleviate Salinity Effects on Soil Microorganisms and Mineralisation Processes in Aerobic and Anaerobic Paddy Rice Soils. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 4. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.00030.
• Xu, Y., Chu, C. and Yao, S. (2021). The impact of high-temperature stress on rice: challenges and solutions. The Crop Journal. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cj.2021.02.011.
• Yang, M., Lu, D., Yang, J., Zhao, Y., Zhao, Q., Sun, Y., Liu, H. and Ma, J. (2019). Carbon and nitrogen metabolic pathways and interaction of cold-resistant heterotrophic nitrifying bacteria under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Chemosphere, [online] 234, pp.162–170. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.06.052.
• Yao, Y., Zhou, Z., Stuckey, D.C. and Meng, F. (2020). Micro-particles—A Neglected but Critical Cause of Different Membrane Fouling between Aerobic and Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactors. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 8(44), pp.16680–16690. doi:https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c06502.
• Ye, M. and Maslakov, D. (2023). Clinical Reviews and Case Reports Anaerobic and Aerobic Glycolysis -Features of the Course in the Nervous System. [online] doi:https://doi.org/10.31579/2835-7957/015.
• Yetkin-Arik, B., Vogels, I.M.C., Nowak-Sliwinska, P., Weiss, A., Houtkooper, R.H., Van Noorden, C.J.F., Klaassen, I. and Schlingemann, R.O. (2019). The role of glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration in the formation and functioning of endothelial tip cells during angiogenesis. Scientific Reports, 9(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-48676-2.
• Zhang, R., Yan, X. and Fan, K. (2021). Nanozymes Inspired by Natural Enzymes. Accounts of Materials Research, 2(7), pp.534–547. doi:https://doi.org/10.1021/accountsmr.1c00074.
• Raval, K. and Ganatra, T. (2022). Basics, types and applications of molecular docking: A review. IP International Journal of Comprehensive and Advanced Pharmacology, 7(1), pp.12–16. doi:https://doi.org/10.18231/j.ijcaap.2022.003.
• Ayodeji Olalekan Salau and Thomas Kokumo Yesufu (2020). A Probabilistic Approach to Time Allocation for Intersecting Traffic Routes. Advances in intelligent systems and computing. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2740-1_11.
• Choudhary, A. (n.d.). Electron transport chain (ETC) and its mechanism : Pharmaguideline. [online] www.pharmaguideline.com. Available at: https://www.pharmaguideline.com/2022/01/electron-transport-chain.html [Accessed 8 Dec. 2023].